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As part of your discussion, evaluate each of the three administrations for their strengths and weaknesses, the things they got right and the things they got wrong. So, frame your discussion of American Society in terms of these three administrations: a paragraph at least about Ike, then about JFK, then about LBJ. It may prove useful to extend your frame outward a few years on each end to include the influence of Truman and Nixon as the bookends of this time period.
DUE DATE: Friday, April 26, 2013 by midnight
Word Count: 1,000 words minimum
52 comments:
From the late 1950’s and on into to 1960’s, this time period had run rampant with a multitude of major cultural changes as well as social revolutions primarily concerning disagreements such as sexism and racism. It was a time that contained a relatively equal amount of construction that evolved through bursts of destruction. The chief administrative powers during this period resulted in major repercussions for the whole of the American public, first, due to Dwight D. Eisenhower’s authorization of the Interstate Highway System and initiated the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency(DARPA), yet never attempted to endorse the unconstitutionality of segregated schools and consistently criticized Senator Joseph McCarthy; second, John F. Kennedy enacted the Peace Corps and his collected response to the Cuban Missile Crisis, but the Bay of Pigs Invasion and the eventual failure of the “New Frontier” policy proved detrimental; and third Lyndon Baines Johnson set the stage for the “war on poverty”/healthcare reform and the far-reaching NASA space program advancements. Still there had been a growing sense of distrust rising especially surrounding the Vietnam conflict in addition to his declining to run for a full second term(losing control of the Democratic party)(PARENTHESIS-used throughout). Therefore, due to these various social, political, and economic reasons, the overall influence that the sixties had was constructive because it was destructive, and significantly marked the current American identity(with the constructive and destructive service so too of Nixon and Truman).
First, due to Dwight D. Eisenhower’s authorization of the Interstate Highway System and introduction of the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA), there was never an attempt to endorse the unconstitutionality of segregated schools and constantly critiqued Senator Joseph McCarthy. The Interstate Highway System was officially approved in 1956 and justified this act by means of the Federal Aid Highway Act. He argued that it was crucial for American safety especially amidst the Cold War threat. Evacuation would be possible from large bustling cities and would also lighten the military strain while maneuvering. Those endless stretches of tar slab upon tar slab leading literally cross-country are currently our primary form of transportation (REPITITION). Also, the Defense Advanced Research Project Agency (DARPA) created in 1958 serving the purpose of establishing and fulfilling research and development projects in order to expand science and navy requirements beyond what was only immediately available. The eventual outcome was the incomparable expanse of highly accessible, comprehensive knowledge presently in everyday use. However, there were a few distressing events that caused a cripplingly negative effect across the nation. For instance, the segregation evidence of blacks and whites in schools were most prevalent within Little Rock, Arkansas. For the first time since reconstruction, federal court orders were issued to desegregate public schools. Little Rock Central High School and the Little Rock Nine (a group of nine African-American students who wished to attend the previously all white public high school) was the victim of public protests and the Arkansas National Guard prevented their first enrollment attempts by order of the state governor, while President Eisenhower transmitted federal troops of his own to ensure their protection. This confusing and tension laden time period was merely the beginning of the all-out skirmish over racial discrimination and national security later brought to the attention of the Supreme Court in Brown v. Board of Education. This was massively explosive in terms of the ever present violent riots that occurred in the streets. In relation to Truman and Nixon, Truman influenced the origins of the Cold War, and Nixon the Vietnam struggle.
Second, John F. Kennedy enacted the Peace Corps and his collected response to the Cuban Missile Crisis, but the Bay of Pigs Invasion and the ultimate failure of the “New Frontier” policy proved to be disadvantageous. The formation of the Peace Corps was one of Kennedy’s first acts as president. The program itself was meant as a volunteer corporation to aid underdeveloped countries in the necessary areas of concern such as farming, education, construction, and healthcare. Still in effect even now, the Peace Corps serves approximately 139 countries. This was a call back to his famous quotation, “And so, my fellow Americans: ask not what your country can do for you-ask what you can do for your country”. Likewise, the Cuban Missile Crisis, which was a thirteen day confrontation between the Soviet Union and Cuba with United States background involvement. Being one of the key hostilities of the Cold War, it was the single closest call into a rather large-scale nuclear battle. Conversely, Kennedy’s stoic resolve in Khrushchev shortly after the Vienna summit, (declaring publicly that they would not invade Cuba and covertly agreed to remove missiles residing in Turkey) was what permitted the narrow escape. Still, the troubling occurrence of the Bay of Pigs in Southeast Asia for example, was meant to supposedly obstruct the interference of the president in civil rights administration. This failure led to the strengthening of Castro’s personal administration and declared an adoption of socialism solidifying Soviet Union ties and ending in the Cuban Missile Crisis. Also, his “New Frontier” plan was aspiringly promised more federal funding, government intervention in the recession, and further rural economic aid in addition to an end to racial discrimination. But congress did not act on this until after his assassination, so rates became too high and revenues far too low, so they were forced to lower rates instead. In coordination with Truman and Nixon, all three were ambitious in their governing, and occasionally over-estimated their abilities to pull through with those heavy tasks. So too in Truman’s marking of communist containment and Nixon’s Berlin Wall imprisonment marking defensive posturing for all, including the west.
And third, Lyndon Baines Johnson set the stage for the “war on poverty”/healthcare reform, and the broad NASA space program improvements were clear, despite there being a growing sense of distrust rising especially surrounding the Vietnam conflict in addition to his declination to run for a full second term(losing control of the Democratic party). On direct request from Johnson, Congress willingly passed the Revenue Act of 1964 and the Economic Opportunity Act in association with the war on poverty. He put into action bills like Work Study, food stamps, and eventually Medicare and Medicaid. This was meant to provide a cheaper medial service more readily accessible to the elderly, greatly reducing national poverty levels overall. Also, the NASA space program evolution was quite extensive. The transference of the Gemini project at that point had just begun preparations for the first Apollo program flights. However, after the unexpected and sudden deaths of the first Apollo crew due to a technical miscalculation, recovery came only after prompting for NASA to do its own investigation. Nevertheless, there was an increase in suspicion revolving around the conflict in Vietnam. His larger problems began in 1966, and the apparent gap between what was being said and what was actually meant were far and few between. In other words, what was occurring in Vietnam did not go hand in hand with what was being stated, thus demonstrating untrustworthy coverage for Johnson. Not only that, but his choice to not run for a second term was one of the most damaging events of his time. Constant street fights were taking place as the Democratic Party abruptly split into four different divisions as Johnson lost control. The Democrats never did completely unite in the end. This played well in Richard Nixon’s favor, seeing as it enabled him to overtake the election and become the next president, while Truman’s campaign also consisted of runner up candidates, hindering a gratifying term.
Due to the multitude of social, political, and economic reasons, the presidential terms of Eisenhower, Kennedy, and Lyndon B. Johnson all conclusively contributed through their strengths and weaknesses (as well as Nixon and Truman’s partaking to a decisive extent in each affair) , the true impact of the sixties. Destruction is the basis of reconstruction, and this era was no exception to that, because without the dark, light would be intangible (METAPHOR/SYMBOLISM). America is what it is now as a result of not only these foreign and domestic affairs, but also of the ethnic revolution that came as part of this life-changing package left on the doorstep of the country, but opened by the house of the world(PROSOPOEIA).
Olivia Brophy - Per. 3 & 4
Between 1955 and 1968, the United States underwent a massive social transformation – from a nation of calm “conformity” to one of “counterculture” activism. This transformation occurred largely because of the events that took place during the presidencies of Eisenhower, Kennedy and Johnson, and to a lesser extent those of Truman and Nixon. First, the economy fluctuated during these years and poverty remained prevalent, causing stress; Second, political failures often outshined the successes, which contributed to a growing sense of disillusionment with the government; Third, social events played a massive role in creating a division in American society. Thus, the economic, political and social events of the years 1955 to 1968 greatly affected American society.
President Eisenhower inherited much from President Truman, including a strong economy, which was a key element in his success as president. The strength of the economy had partly been achieved by the GI Bill. This legislation increased education levels and allowed returning servicemen to take higher paying jobs, which in turn bolstered the economy through spending. Possibly taking in to account the success of the socially minded and economically beneficial GI Bill, President Eisenhower was able to pass the Interstate Highway Act through Congress, which made moving and travelling across the country easier, which were huge social benefits. In turn, the new ease of travel led to its popularity, which stimulated the economy massively. The overall strength of the economy after Truman’s presidency and during that of Eisenhower led to the explosive growth of the United States as a consumer culture, which provided a massive, new form of stimulation for the U.S. economy. In addition to a strong economy, Eisenhower also inherited an increasingly conservative voting populous. As shown by the failure of liberal legislation, such as Truman’s Fair Deal, which was reminiscent of FDR’s New Deal in many ways, a new conservatism had taken hold of the nation beginning in the last years of Truman’s administration. However, this conservatism was not powerful enough to ensure the passage of all of Eisenhower’s goals. Two such unrealized ambitions include that of cutting military spending and diminishing the impact of the Cold War on American society. These two elusive intentions were related – the fact that Eisenhower largely failed to cut military spending is directly related to the fact that he was unable to scale back the Cold War and visa versa. Eisenhower’s inability to cut military spending meant that a balanced budget was not achieved for the people, which has negative fallout for the American people. The continuation of the Cold War meant that worldwide political tensions were still high, and as a result, so were those in the United States. In addition to being unable to cut military spending and lessen the effects of the Cold War on the United States, Eisenhower was slow to react on issues and legislation concerning civil rights. This social failure stimulated resistance among many Americans, mostly in the South, on both sides of the conflict, and would spur more people to be proactive with the issue in ensuing years.
(pt. 2)
The Kennedy administration witnessed the escalation of the Cold War and was forced to divert most of its attention to work towards combating it. The Bay of Pigs invasion was the first action taken by this new president to fight the growing menace of the Cold War. This failure of this invasion caused not only domestic grief, but also further agitated the Soviets and their allies in addition to worrying American Allies, some of whom joined with the U.S. as a result of aid they received from the Marshall Plan, and who saw the United States on a podium of sorts. The Cuban Missile Crisis was another action taken towards combating the escalating tensions of the Cold War, and can be called neither a success nor a victory. While Kennedy did alienate the Soviets by publicly forcing them to remove warheads from Cuba, he secretly was forced to promise to remove the American equivalent from Turkey, which negated any real victory that may have come about because of the event. In addition to the Cold War as a whole escalating, “proxy war” in Vietnam heightened as well during Kennedy’s presidency. As a result, Kennedy increased U.S. involvement in the conflict and, on the whole, failed to really meet the needs of the South Vietnamese. Ultimately, these failures drove many, mostly peasants, into the arms of the North Vietnamese. Kennedy, at the start of his short term as president, promised the nation that he would combat its woes, namely poverty, racism and a lingering recession. However, the prevalence of foreign conflicts, as mentioned above, dogged the Kennedy administration and made it impossible for these promises to be fulfilled. The issue of black civil rights especially suffered because of the preoccupation of the federal government, as evidenced by Kennedy not devoting much attention to it until late in his presidency, and was forced to seek aid from other organizations. By finding ways to gain support, the civil rights movement became increasingly active in the end of Kennedy’s term and throughout Johnson’s as well. President Kennedy’s immense amount of popular support was juxtaposed by his general inability to gain the support of Congress throughout his two and a half years in office. However, in the case of the NASA, JFK was able to garner support, and an immeasurable amount of social, political and economic benefits stemmed from the Administrations massive projects.
(pt. 3)
Similar to his predecessor, President Johnson often made more domestic promises than the foreign events of the time would allow. The ever-escalating Vietnam conflict diverted necessary attention away from the domestic problems within the U.S. Johnson decided to keep troops in Vietnam in order to try and achieve “total victory”. This plan was incredibly unpopular amongst the American people, and further widened a growing division over the conflict on the home front. The Tonkin Gulf Resolution of 1964 continued the trend of the division of the American people by allowing LBJ to increase the number of deployed troops to Vietnam. By continually sending more troops to Vietnam, the “Americanization” of the conflict began, which inspired the phenomenal growth of the unpopularity of the conflict. As the war lagged on, the administration continued its string of failures by unintentionally increasing the number of miscalculations in regards to the war. This, in turn, caused the frustrated troops to turn towards desperate measures to achieve their goals. Back at home, these combined occurrences contributed to the worsening social and political divide over the conflict that had been stewing for some time. This divide was fueled by the collegiate aged New Leftists, feminists and the Hippie counterculture who all united under an anti-involvement banner in regards to Vietnam. The messy involvement of the Johnson administration in the Vietnam conflict was a main factor in the failure of Johnson’s Great Society, which aimed at eliminating poverty. However, Johnson observed the fallout from Kennedy’s ignoring of the civil rights issue and successfully committed himself to being more proactive, as evidenced by the success of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965. Despite this commitment to civil rights, it is evident that the majority of the actions taken by the Johnson administration were detrimental towards American society. The economy under Johnson was successful and thus did not play a major part in the successes or failures of his presidency.
The presidencies of Dwight D. Eisenhower, John F. Kennedy and Lyndon B. Johnson were often tumultuous, a characteristic which eventually came to be reflected in the nature of American society. While most dissent during the Eisenhower administration centered around racial issues, such as in the case of the Little Rock Nine, that of the Kennedy and Johnson administration was increasingly wide spread – from racial tensions, as evidenced by the black riots following the assassination of Martin Luther King, Jr., to political dissension, as typified by the Chicago protests of the Democratic National Convention in 1968. The political, social and economic actions of these three presidents between 1955 and 1968 played an enormous part in the evolution of American society during that era.
As the country continued to distance itself from the final throws of the Great Depression and a truly horrific war, America took on an entirely unique identity. The 50’s and 60’s proved to be a truly tumultuous time period in American history in which many subsets of the population fought ardently for the rights and beliefs they were entitled to. First, under President Eisenhower the economic landscape of the country changed drastically; second, President Kennedy rejuvenated much of the old social order and saw the rise of a new politically conscious youth population; and third, Lyndon Baines Johnson enacted a multitude of long promised legislation that directly effected change in the people’s lives. Together, these three presidents presided over one of the most controversial and impacting time periods that the nation has ever undergone; a time period that continues to shape the course of the country today.
While the buck may have stopped with Truman, it was Dwight D. Eisenhower that was successful in ending the American conflict in Korea, thus ushering in a respite from war and poverty that had come to characterize the country in the preceding decades. With the economy booming and no draft threatening the youth of America, a new consumer culture took hold, aided immensely by the wide availability of televisions. Soon enough, the “typical” American family could boast to having a house in the suburbs with multiple cars and multiple TV sets. This new conspicuous consumerism came about through an immense increase in advertising, often targeted at the newly affluent youth population. Brands became entire identities and markers of individualism as the media threatened to mainstream the very individual spirit that had been the nation’s hallmark since the 1700’s. But this Leave it to Beaver world wasn’t without its flaws; the threat of the Cold War was felt heavily on the home front as Senator Joseph McCarthy strove to root out reds, one by one. The harsh treatment of suspected communist spies led many to become disillusioned from the government as groups of people were rounded up for questioning with only paltry evidence incriminating them. The Civil Rights Movement began to take shape during this time, beginning with Rosa Parks in 1955 and the Little Rock Nine in 1957. While Eisenhower did intervene in Arkansas, he was generally unwilling to go to any great lengths to aid the cause of civil rights, let alone stick his neck out politically. In a sense, the Eisenhower era primed the pump for the stormy seas of the sixties.
As the first Roman Catholic and youngest president, John F. Kennedy completely changed the face of the nation. His promise of the New Frontier of space invigorated the country as it was a clear step away from the old social order of the past decade. While there was a general consensus of excitement and unity over this proposed mission to the moon, the escalating conflict in Vietnam was threatening to rip the country in two. Partially developed by the new freedoms they enjoyed in the fifties, the youth of America had taken on a completely distinct political attitude. Harkening back to the days of the transcendentalists like Ralph Waldo Emerson and Henry David Thoreau, the youth population started a counter culture movement that would resound through the decades to follow as they ardently defied the establishment and the old social order of their parents. Their combined efforts were most zealously targeted at the continued US presence in Vietnam as the country continued to funnel both money and men into the small, Southeast Asian country, despite the lack of any sort of war declaration. The cause of most of this involvement was Kennedy’s policy of Flexible Response towards the Vietnam conflict, which dictated that the United States respond differently to different levels of aggression. This holistic view of the spectrum of warfare (especially considering Kennedy’s understanding of the potential consequences of warfare with the introduction of atomic weapons) sounded reasonable on paper, but in reality, it allowed for increased military engagement instead of diplomatic action, thus exacerbating the already ugly dispute. The newly identified hippies of America cried out for a peace that was never to come, while the blacks of America cried out for an equality that was a long time coming. Before his death in 1963, Kennedy made the first step toward civil rights legislation in a televised speech to the nation; presidential complacency towards the plight of African Americans was no longer a viable option.
After a hasty inauguration aboard Air Force One, President Lyndon B. Johnson promised to finish the job that Kennedy had started, as well as clearly make his mark on American history. After championing the Civil Rights Act of 1964, LBJ went on to prove to the country that he was a reincarnation of the influential FDR. As part of his vision for the Great Society, Johnson delivered on social reform that democrats had been promising for decades. Focusing in on education, discrimination, cities, the environment, consumer advocacy, and poverty, Johnson delivered a flurry of legislation at a rate that hadn’t been seen since the days of the New Deal. Some programs started during this time are still active today, such as Social Security and Medicare. While the Great Society tackled some very important evils such as discrimination and immigration, its most ambitious undertaking was the war on poverty. Federal funds were allocated to rebuild inner city slums as well as provide unique opportunities for underprivileged children to receive an education. As controversial as LBJ’s programs may have been, the poverty rate dropped by nearly 10% and hit an all time low by 1973. Johnson may not have been successful in winning the war on poverty, but he certainly won several strategic battles.
With the Cold War heating up both at home and abroad, the social landscape of the United States was permanently altered. President Eisenhower, Kennedy, and Johnson oversaw the turbulent times from 1953 to 1969 that would ultimately be described as the age of a Rights Revolution that completely dismantled the old establishment and, despite the chaos, was able to construct a new social and political order more appropriate for the rapidly changing climate of the day. America emerged from these years of turmoil forever changed, ready to see the twentieth century through to its close, hoping that the end would ultimately justify the means.
From 1955 to 1968, the American society underwent major social, political, and economic developments under the presidencies of Dwight D. Eisenhower, John F. Kennedy, and Lyndon Baines Johnson that dramatically affected life on the homefront as the young country grew. Throughout this time period, the issues during each of these presidencies increasingly defined the status and character of the United States as it struggled to balance international duties as a nation with internal obligations as an American people. First, the majority of Dwight D. Eisenhower’s presidential administration concentrated inwardly as internal affairs largely dominated American society; second, the presidential administration of John F. Kennedy saw more world involvement from the former isolationist country as the communism adversary jeopardized the fate of the planet; third, Lyndon Baines Johnson’s term attempted to achieve internal improvement while simultaneously utilizing foreign conflicts to satisfy his own personal goals. Therefore, through the presidencies of Eisenhower, JFK, and LBJ, the American nation gradually came to further assume its global role, with the 1960s proving to be both a constructive and destructive time period in relation to the internal and external concerns that shaped the nation.
(cont.)
From 1955-68 the nation underwent major shifts in social policies as FDR’s New Deal morphed into LBJ’s Great Society. These social programs addressed the specific issues of the time; however, they were essentially FDR’s New Deal repacked to better fit the time period. These major progressions in the political ideology of the administrations reflect the face of the society at the time as the economy fluctuated, society revolted, and the people lost faith in the government. Therefore, because of these major changes in US society the time period was merely a transitional period and was therefore analogous to the Gilded Age (without the corruption), in which the society was shaken to its foundations in order to the factory backbone of 20th century America.
President Eisenhower inherited a post-war America which had flexed and worked out its military muscle and was now cooling down with the Cold War that would follow. The nation was whole-heartedly behind Eisenhower with jubilant shouts of, “I like Ike!” Eisenhower immediately launched into social programs like FDR had done and created the Interstate Highway System to further enhance the infrastructure of the expanding nation. This stimulus plan was not only economy driven but also militaristically driven as Eisenhower believed it was essential to have the infrastructure to fight the Cold War. Eisenhower’s primary purpose in the presidency was that of national defense- he proposed the Open Skies plan in order to loosen the taut ropes of the Cold War, and the containment plan provided the frame work for the Cold War policies of future administrations- and much of the success of the boisterous economy was because of the large military spending. The GI bill successfully incorporated the WW2 veterans back into society. Eisenhower’s two terms were an important period that drew the lines in the sand between Soviet Russia and the US, as both dug in for World War 3. This period was a transitional period for the society as the baby-boomer generation changed the landscape of the economy. As a result consumerism became an American mindset as the new stereotypical American family now lived in suburbia and owned two cars and a TV set. This “Leave it to Beaver” “perfect” family set up the disillusionment of future generations that would eventually lead to the conservative result. Eisenhower’s presidency was most importantly about the attempt of the people to stay economically in a safe place as memories of the Great Depression still were fresh, and the boom of wartime was something that everyone once again reached for.
John F. Kennedy came into the White House with vigor that few presidents could claim to have. He was the new face of America, a young successful man (at least on the outside). The programs such as NASA and the Marshall Plan issued new blood into the American veins as the new generation had a goal to reach for. NASA’ Apollo plan ultimately kicked off the US’ search for the first man on the moon. These developments employed highly-educated civilians to construct the rockets. This highly advanced both the scientific and mathematical fields. These programs pushed military developments as well, as ICBM’s came out of the scientific research. Kennedy’s “Ask not what your country can do for you” broke the people’s previous reliance on the government for support, but instead pushed the new generation to be actively involved in the New Frontier. This activity gave birth to a jittery number of events as the Bay of Pigs invasion, Vietnam, and the Cuban Missile Crisis, which set the Cold War on fire. The consumerism of the baby boomers reached new heights as the scandalous behavior of Elvis Presley, and the distasteful rebellion of the teens changed the face of America. “Leave it to Beaver’s” perfect family shifted to the “Brady Bunch” and the realities of life. Many Americans became disillusioned with the government and society as their “perfect” lives fell apart. This disillusionment was eventually brought to a climax as the youthful and exuberant Kennedy was shown on television taking three sniper bullets to the head. The Kennedy Administration took giant leaps in the fields of youthful uprising with NASA and action-filled pursuits brought the Soviets face to face with the hyper-active Americans.
Lyndon Baines Johnson, sworn in on Air One, inherited a shocked nation who was still mourning the death of their leader. LBJ immediately launched into his Great Society. The Civil Rights Act of 1964 pushed forward civil rights , and the Tonkin Gulf Resolution in 1964 gave the president unprecedented power (and ever since then Congress has been reaching for that power again). The conflict in Vietnam raged on, and the people began to push back as they resented more and more the draft which sent them into the slaughterhouse of Vietnam. The troops responded to this sense of frustration and viscously lashed out angrily at the crafty guerillas. Movements across the nation reflected the anger of the disillusioned hippies, youth, and civil rights activist. This movement ultimately resulted in total unpopularity of Johnson who tried to regain this popularity with the Great Society which targeted poverty. The Great Society program was almost a carbon copy of FDR’s New Deal. LBJ pushed reforms for education, the elderly, immigration, and many other social welfare plans. Medicare and Medicaid yielded positive pushes for welfare. The NASA program yielded impressive results as the goal of man on the moon looked more and more hopeful. The education of the scientists involved made it possible for the development and birth of many other fields. LBJ’s term was a successful in that it pushed the boundaries of welfare, but ultimately it was jaded and stained by the blood splatters in Vietnam.
The presidencies from Ike to JFK to LBJ resulted in the shift of society, the economy and politics as Open Skies shifted to the New Frontier to the Great Society. This period was essential for the US as it was a transitional time period from 20th century America to 21st century America. The presidents following FDR essentially rode the wave of his success, however many shipwrecked on the same plans, but all presidents following FDR tried to fill those great shoes the polio induced man left behind. This time period saw the economy fluctuate with the military, saw a lost faith in the government that failed to live up the expectations put on them, and saw the revolt of society. Therefore this time was important in that it was a segway to the future of America.
-Christian Filbrun
Beckett Lee
Periods 3 & 4
America, 1955-1968, transformed from a postwar land of stability and order to the land of the free love movement and the home of the hippies. While the early years of this era are characterized by the Andy Griffith and Leave it to Beaver lifestyle, the Beavers and Opies of this generation grow up to become the counterculture generation defined by hairspray, protests, drugs, and freedom. This radical transformation is due in large part to the administrations of three men, Dwight Eisenhower, John Kennedy, and Lyndon Johnson, which defined the era. First, Commander-in-Chief Eisenhower, drawing upon his wartime experience, built America to be a global colossus to ensure stability and peace both domestically and abroad; second, President John Kennedy encouraged every American to shoot for the moon in their everyday lives; third, Lyndon Johnson rode the magic bullet and used his power to empower American society and the government. Each one of these presidents had a distinct effect on the course of American history and each would catalyze the revolutions in American society, politics, and economics of this age.
Dwight Eisenhower characterized his administration by acting as America’s Commander-in-Chief more than its head executive. President Eisenhower’s primary conflict was with the U.S.S.R. and the Communists. This mandate was given to him by the red hunting of the Truman years and public support for V.P. Richard Nixon. The Korean Conflict had only just ended and America was riding on the back of its tremendously powerful economy which in turn was riding on the back of the American military. Eisenhower, in taking a stance against the Communist threat and knowing the power of military spending, decided to encourage further military expansion to empower American national security and the economy. To emphasize his “Open Skies” policy, Eisenhower built fleets of B-52 bombers and enough nuclear warheads to assure the U.S.S.R. that any aggression against the U.S. would result in their complete annihilation. This policy of Mutually Assured Destruction (M.A.D.) would continually return over the course of the Cold War. In terms of the economy, President Eisenhower continued the use of federal organizations to encourage economic growth. He even went beyond the example set by FDR by funding and organizing the interstate highway system to improve civilian and military transportation capabilities. However, Eisenhower generally tried to remain as uninvolved in political scheming and interfering as possible. He was famously aloof when compared to his crusading V.P. who encouraged the red hunts of this time periods. The power of the military at this time, the subsequent economic stability, and the general faith in the wisdom of a war hero resulted in an era of social stability in America. This was further aided by the movement of the orderly and technically skilled soldiers to the suburbs where they established communities and contributed their skills to the workforce. These factors explain the classic portrayal of the 50’s family. While Eisenhower did have a significant impact on the Cold War and the transportation system, he could have had a much more significant impact in the political sector. However, it is this lack of political manipulation that has made him one of the least hated presidents in history.
John Kennedy had some of the same challenges that Eisenhower did, but slightly different responses that made him a potent figure on the world stage. Kennedy also faced the red threat. While wielding the massive forces created by Eisenhower, Kennedy also decided to adapt a policy of “flexible response” where he could have a specially designed solution to any hostility that might arise. He knew that he had the American military as a backup plan, but if he wanted to use scalpels rather than machetes if possible. This is why he attempted to use the CIA to support the Cubans during the Bay of Pigs invasion. This is also why he decided to blockade Cuba instead of invading it during the Cuban Missile Crisis. He knew that if he used the least amount of force necessary to solve a problem, he would have a smaller chance of beginning a nuclear holocaust. Domestically, Kennedy is most known for his ambition to put Americans on the moon as a response to the U.S.S.R. putting Sputnik into space. His plan would have enormous effects on American science and technology which would, in turn, revolutionize the American economy. This far-sighted plan of a “New Frontier” would generate incredible progress in the U.S. Politically, Kennedy encouraged American unity and support for the government. He was an excellent orator and used these skills to motivate the public toward supporting his policies and goals. His famous “Ask not what your country can do for you, ask what you can do for your country,” saying appealed to the veterans who had asked that same question during the wars. Kennedy also appealed to many groups just because of who he was. He appealed to the younger generations because he was young. He appealed to Catholics because he was Catholic (though this did cause trouble with some of the Protestant voters). He appealed to veterans because he was a veteran. This appeal to the common man defined his political career. His assassination in 1963 solidified his reputation as a president who was adored by his people and inspired a generation to focus on the individual. This focus on the individual would soon take an unexpected turn.
President Lyndon Johnson, in his efforts to lead America to a Great Society, would produce a societal backlash that he never expected. President Johnson contended with Communism by escalating the conflict in Vietnam. Johnson had hoped to prevent the results foretold by the Domino Theory and protect South Vietnam from the invasion of its northern neighbor. He started by sending American military advisors to South Vietnam. When Congress passed the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution, Johnson used every bit of the power that it gave him to send American soldiers to Vietnam to defeat the Vietcong and North Vietnamese Army. The Americans, due to technological, economic, and tactical superiority won most of the major engagements of the conflict. However, as the months became years and the people back home began to resent the conflict and its causes, the conflict lost the support of the home front, an ingredient that had been vital to all previous American engagements. Domestically, LBJ continued the legacy of establishing federal organizations to manage the economy. His “Great Society” policies included the Elementary and Secondary Education Act, the National Endowment for the Humanities, the Public Broadcasting Act, the Revenue Act of 1964, and the Economic Opportunity Act. LBJ also supported the progress of NASA and the space programs. Johnson also signed the Gun Control Act of 1968 which was the most expansive federal act for Gun Control up to that point. Politically, LBJ was a dominating figure who intimidated his opponents into submission. However, his reputation changed from a powerful statesman, to a deceptive political snake when his claims about the progress of the Vietnam Conflict proved to be false and the Pentagon Papers were discovered. The secret bombing campaign in Cambodia solidified the hatred of the American people toward the politically prolonged conflict. This led to the radical peace movement, draft burnings, and counterculture explosion of the hippies. Thus ended the transition from the 50s world of Leave It to Beaver to the 60s world of Woodstock. The increasing federal control of American life, the overexposure to conflict, and the complacency of a booming economy fundamentally changed the American people toward the security-based lifestyle of the 21st century.
From 1955 all the way to 1968 America went through a major change in the products of the social policies as Franklin D. Roosevelt’s New Deal changed into Lyndon B. Johnson’s Great Society. The social programs went towards the specific issues of the time, but they were actually FDR’s New Deal repackaged and decorated to fit the time period better. Those major movements in the political ideology of the governments show the society at the time, as the economy busted then the society protested, and the people started to stop believing that the government was capable of keeping the economy solid. So, because of the major changes America was going through in their society, the time period was then parallel to the Mark Twain named, Gilded Age, though with much less corruption. For which the society was pressed down and torn apart to its bare minimums in order to rebuild the backbone of the 20th century.
When Eisenhower became president he gained an after war America which had worked out it’s military to the bone and was now cooling off in getting ready for the Cold War that is to come. The nation was whole-heartedly behind Eisenhower with jubilant shouts of, “I like Ike!” Eisenhower directly propelled into social programs like FDR had done and fashioned the Interstate Highway System to advance enhance the substructure of the expanding nation. This plan was not only driven by the economy but also military driven as Ike thought it was essential to have the infrastructure to fight in the Cold War. Ike’s main focus during the presidency was national defense – he even proposed the Open Skies plan in order to loosen the tension that came along with the Cold War, and the containment plan created the frame work for the Cold War policies of future administrations – and much of the victory of the economy was much because of the major military spending. The GI Bill was specifically made to incorporate the World War 2 veterans to come back into society like normal citizens. Ike’s two terms were a very important period that drew up what countries were going to be on what side, thus draw the lines for World War 3. This time was a transition for the society as the babies kept coming and changed the economic landscape. This “perfect” family set up the discouragement of future generations that would in the long run lead to the conventional result. Eisenhower’s presidency was importantly about the effort of the public to stay economically sound as recollections of the Great Depression still were there, and the thrill of wartime was something that everyone could once again reach for and come together for.
John F. Kennedy ratified the Peace Corps as his collected response to the Cuban Missile Crisis, but the Bay of Pigs Invasion plus the ultimate letdown of his plan, “New Frontier” policy, proved to be very damaging. The development of the Peace Corps was one of Kennedy’s first acts in his presidency. The program itself was meant as a volunteer corporation to aid underdeveloped countries. Still in effect even now, the Peace Corps serves approximately 139 countries. Likewise, the Cuban Missile Crisis, which had been a thirteen day confrontation between the Soviet Union and Cuba with the United States of America using background involvement. Being one of the main conflicts of the Cold War, it was the lone closest call into a rather large-scale nuclear battle. Equally, Kennedy’s stoic resolve in Khrushchev shortly after the Vienna summit, was what permitted the narrow escape. The upsetting incidence of the Bay of Pigs in Southeast Asia was meant to allegedly hinder the intrusion of the president in civil rights direction. This disappointment was what led to the solidification of Castro’s own administration in Cuba and stated an embracing of socialism solidifying Soviet Union bonds and concluding in the Cuban Missile Crisis. In harmonization with Truman and Nixon, they were all determined in their governing, and sometimes over-estimated their skills to pull through with those substantial responsibilities. So too in Truman’s marking of communist suppression and Nixon’s Berlin Wall captivity marking cautious affectation for all, plus the west.
Lyndon Baines Johnson fixed the time for the “war on poverty” also known as a healthcare reform, and the extensive NASA space program enhancements were obvious (which began from the late JFK), regardless of there being a growing sense of mistrust increasing particularly adjoining the Vietnam conflict in addition to his decline to run for another full term (for a full 8 years). On straight request from Johnson, Congress willingly passed the Revenue Act of 1964 and the Economic Opportunity Act in association with the war on poverty. These programs were meant to provide a cheaper medical service to be more freely available to the elderly, and this would hopefully greatly dropping national poverty levels in general. Similarly, the NASA space program progress was fairly widespread. The change of the Gemini project at that point had just ended, initiating the planning for the first Apollo program flights. Though, after the unforeseen and abrupt deaths of the first Apollo crew due to a simple mistake, salvage came only after encouragement for NASA to do its own examination as to what happened. Yet, there was a growth in suspicion rotating around the struggle in Vietnam. His main difficulties arose in 1966, and the seeming break between what was being said and what was actually being done was growing more and more every time he spoke. What was happening in Vietnam did not go parallel with what was being stated by him, therefore representing deceitful attention for Johnson. But there was also his decision to not run for a second term was one of the most harmful events that he could have done for his political career. Continuous street fights, with the police joining in on them instead of stopping them, were taking place as the Democratic Party brusquely divided into four diverse divisions as Johnson lost control of the politics of his own party. This worked out very well in Nixon’s favor, because it had enabled him to surpass the election and become the next president of the United States, while Truman’s movement also consisted of runner up candidates delaying a flattering term.
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Civil rights played a big role in Dwight D. Eisenhower’s presidential terms. From the late 1950s to the early 1960s, the civil rights movement for African Americans intensified in response to southern whites’ tender sensibilities over “Jim Crow” segregation. Domestic concerns among both whites and blacks about the racial violence that accompanied African Americans’ frequent yet peaceful demonstrations gave rise to increased obstinacy in southern attempts to resist integration, some of which included the bolstering of private schools as well as the creation of political legislations like the “Declaration of Constitutional Principles.” Eisenhower, however, extended racial justice sparingly, as he was reluctant to relinquish his popularity and presidential prestige for such a cause. This weakness was somewhat brought to par in 1957 when he ordered the National Guard to escort nine black students into the previously all-white Central High School in Little Rock, Arkansas. Despite his disinterest in the racial issues of the country, the civil rights movement did make notable advances through mobilization of organizations, boycotts, “sit-ins,” and the Supreme Court (like the 1954 “Brown v. Board of Education” ruling that overturned the 1896 “separate but equal” clause in “Plessy v. Ferguson.”) The Cold War also helped to stimulate both economic and political internal development under Eisenhower. The same year that Eisenhower pledged US military and economic aid to Middle Eastern nations threatened by communist aggression (as long as the crisis qualified as substantial or critical enough for the might of US nuclear weapons, as the Hungarian rebels had learned the hard way in 1956), the Russians launched their first satellites into orbit. This feat spurred American economic growth through scientific and technological revolutions (both domestic and military, which included the utilization of television for political campaigning), as well as bolstered American education when doubts on American superiority led to the National Defense and Education Act to provide loans to needy college students in order to improve the teaching of science and languages. In addition, nuclear concern and concern for the country’s fate was a byproduct of the US-Soviet “space race,” and ultimately resulted in the suspension of nuclear testing among both superpowers. Although Eisenhower’s “Open Skies” policy tried to exploit the US’s superior air power over Russia, Eisenhower did well to employ military restraint and guide foreign policy away from threats and toward peace. The paranoia of the Cold War also made room for impediments of the First Amendment, exemplified by the rampage of McCarthy that ultimately harmed the government staff. However, women employment rose (especially in clerical and service work), accompanied by an expansion of the middle class and the birth of a new consumer culture that dictated a new level of leisure. Despite poverty, unemployment, current recessions, and occasional farm problems, Eisenhower’s push for a bolstered economy demonstrated his determination and political know-how when exercising presidential influence – during his term, he not only cleaned up the corruption of the labor unions in 1959, sought to balance the federal government with a less ambitious program of military buildup, and sped the suburbanization of the US through construction jobs (largely provided by the Interstate Highway Act in 1956), but his sincere and optimistic leadership enabled him to soothe many of the country’s worries in the wake of the growing communist threat.
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John F. Kennedy’s presidential term was largely defined by foreign policy, his attempts to mend the areas in which he believed Eisenhower failed, and the ever present dispute between blacks and whites. The escalating Cold War not only provided the focal point of many of Kennedy’s policies, but also shaped the way the United States reacted to the expansion of communism. Aside from protecting countries of probable communist interest, Kennedy’s administration also worked to promote the doctrine of Western nations. With the federal government assuming an active role in guiding fledgling nations down the path of “democracy,” in the early 1960s the American society was affected by an organization called the Peace Corps, created in response to government concerns about the United States’ international role in the rest of the world (due in part to Kennedy’s belief that present circumstances extended further than just simply America, and that the beginnings of a global cooperation for the fate of mankind must be made). The Peace Corps sent young, idealistic volunteers to bring American skills to underdeveloped countries, and thus encouraged Americans to contribute to the worthy struggle of “liberating” communist-oppressed lands. Just as communism in the rest of the world remained active, so did Kennedy’s attempts to stem its expansion, of which prominent US-Soviet spheres of confrontation included Cuba and Vietnam. In the Cuban Missile Crisis, the anxieties of the American society were drastically deepened over the suddenly impending threat of nuclear conflict on American soil. Ultimately, conciliatory agreements ended the intimate US-Soviet confrontation, but the increasing military buildups that ensued led to a refreshed and straining arms race that took its toll on the peace of mind of the US public, both young and old. Kennedy’s deeper involvement in South Vietnam also affected American society in the sense that in 1961, under the pretense of establishing stability (in order to later enact social reforms advocated by the American public), the number of troops being sent into the South East Asian country increased. In addition, believing that Eisenhower’s term left several distinct and negative marks on the country, Kennedy tried addressing incomplete, internal concepts like wages. However, unlike Eisenhower, Kennedy took a moral stance on the racial question, calling for civil rights legislations for blacks’ protection as well as their advancement in society, in response to continued racial violence despite the progress of the civil rights movement. Overall, Kennedy inspired high expectations during the paranoia of the Cold War, especially through his ambitious New Frontier program of landing a man on the moon – before the Russians could surpass the US further.
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From 1955 to 1968, the United States was thrown into massive cultural upheaval, economic fluctuations, and political change. Much of this can be attributed to the presidencies of Dwight D. Eisenhower, John F. Kennedy, and Lyndon B. Johnson, seeing as their policies dramatically affected the American people of the time, and the American people of today. First, Dwight D. Eisenhower led the nation through a relatively calm decade as America focused on internal issues; second, John F. Kennedy stepped into massive foreign showdowns that showed the floundering policy of the government; and third, Lyndon B. Johnson leaped into dangerous entanglements with trying to balance internal improvements with chaotic foreign war. Therefore, because of the presidencies of these three men, the 1960s was destructive in that America was rid of its previous mindsets, but constructive in that the people and the government were shaped into a new nation.
Eisenhower’s predecessor, Harry Truman, left behind a healthy economy for Eisenhower to work with, handing him his relaxed presidency. Unlike Truman, Eisenhower had a small government philosophy and put the brakes on enormous military spending (although it was still at 10 percent of the GNP). He focused on internal improvements, most notably his Interstate Highway Act in 1956 which built 42,000 miles of highways that crisscrossed the country. This, coupled with the cheap and easy access to the automobile, led to the growing of suburbia. Famously dubbed the “White Flight”, these expanding suburbs were the home of mostly whites fleeing the more racially diverse cities. Eisenhower’s “New Look” pushed the army and navy into the backseat in favor of an air fleet of super bombers (Strategic Air Command). Because of this, the aerospace industry grew fanatically with the help of new science and technology, spurring economic success and growth. American consumerism came to define the American way of living, as many citizens- especially the middle class- found themselves in the possession of plenty of money after the long war filled years of saving, saving, saving. Increases in advertising led to the mindset of “must have”- especially in teen culture. Music icons such as rock star Elvis Presley and the British Rolling Stones and Beatles appealed to this baby boomer generation, much to the distaste of their parents. Although this American life seemed perfect at a glance, the fear of communism was still abroad, most notably through the Red Scare by Senator McCarthy. His accusations kept American fears above the surface as he ruined countless numbers of careers. The African American Civil Rights movement was also at the verge of its break through with the decision in Brown v. Board of Education which reversed the Plessy v. Ferguson concept of “separate but equal”. Although Eisenhower was not keen to aid the movement, he did intervene during the Little Rock Nine in 1957, sending in federal troops to escort these nine students safely to school. The Cold War abroad and underlying tension within the nation made Eisenhower’s presidency the calm before the storm, as the nation experienced massive turmoil in the ensuing decade.
Kennedy sprung into the presidency with invigorating energy on the heels of Eisenhower’s success and almost immediately launched America into a new era, as it ended its decade of disillusionment. The Bay of Pigs Invasion in 1961- barely three months after his inauguration- proved a disaster as approximately 1200 anti-Castro exiles were slaughtered at the Bay. The following year, the distressing Cuban Missile Crisis marked the definite continuation of tense relations between the Soviet Union and the United States. However, unlike the previous theory of “massive retaliation”, Kennedy pushed for “flexible response”, which called for an array of military options that could be used depending on the situation. American fears of happenings on the other side were worsened in 1961 with the division of Europe through the “Iron Curtain” of brick and barbed wire fence, firmly separating democracy from communism. Kennedy increased the number of military advisers in South Vietnam in 1961 and two years later organized a coup against dictator Diem, leaving the soon exploding Vietnam chaos to his successor. Kennedy promised the American nation a “New Frontier” and swore to have a man step on the moon within the next ten years. Easier said than done, this goal was worked on tirelessly by the space industry (NASA) to accomplish Kennedy’s goal and beat the Soviet Union in the “space race”. Although Kennedy was a firm Civil Rights supporter, he did not advocate for the movement until near the end of his short term in office. However, angry and long discriminated against African Americans rose up under the leadership of Martin Luther King Junior who advocated for peaceful protests to achieve the end of discrimination. Kennedy gave a speech in 1963, just months before his assassination, calling for new Civil Right legislation after the TV broadcasts of violent attacks on peaceful protestors by the police. MLK then led 200,000 supporters on a “March on Washington” in August of 1963 where he then delivered his famed “I Have a Dream” speech. Kennedy’s own dream for America was cut short when he was killed by Henry Lee Oswald’s three bullets on November 22, 1963 in Dallas, Texas. Grieving, the shocked and saddened nation turned to young President’s VP to carry on the ideas and spirit of Kennedy.
Lyndon Baines Johnson, similar to Kennedy, had great dreams for the nation, but tried to juggle too much all at once. He at first enjoyed overwhelming success and popularity with the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which ended racial discrimination in many private facilities open to the public and created the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, passed with great thanks to Kennedy’s lasting memory. With the end of the poll tax in 1964 with the 24th Amendment, the Civil rights movement focused on opening up the polling booths the blacks in the South. However, several riots erupted in cities across the nation as black rights were now advocated for by violent riots with leaders like Malcolm X and the Black Panther Party. Furthermore, MLK’s assassination in 1968 robbed the movement of its most powerful leader. Johnson pushed forward his “Great Society” plan, a set of economic and welfare measures aimed at aiding and transforming American life. This included his famous War on Poverty in addition to aid to education, city reform, end to discrimination, protection of the environment, and consumer advocacy. Johnson extended federal power greatly and the poverty level dropped from 21 percent in 1962 to 11 percent in 1973. Although there was a massive tax cut that spurred the economy, the Great Society contributed to the deficit. Furthermore, the previous escalating tension in Vietnam exploded in 1965 when LBJ ordered retaliatory bombing raids of North Vietnam after the American air base at Pleiku, South Vietnam was attacked. One month later, America was ordering regular full-scaling bombing against the communist northern counterpart. Although Johnson had many domestic triumphs, his administration become overshadowed by the “conflict” in Vietnam as it tried to balance the strain of domestic and foreign policy. The fighting in Vietnam quickly became very unpopular. Being the first war shown on TV, the public was able to see the atrocities committed on both sides. College students were especially enraged and rioted on college campuses. These protests quickly turned violent as police got involved and protesters were killed. Vietnam was Johnson’s downfall, as his popularity was turned into disgust, and he decided not to run in the 1968 presidential election.
The administrations of Eisenhower, Kennedy, and Johnson all changed and impacted American life socially, economically, and politically through the controversial decades of their presidencies.
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Lyndon Baines Johnson’s effect on the American society was mainly characterized through social and political aspects. An experienced politician, LBJ was able to sufficiently address issued left untouched by JFK, such as the separation of church and state in relation to education. Having grown up poor, LBJ identified poverty as one of the chief sources of the troubles in modern American society, and thus attempted to reform this pressing problem by implementing New Deal-ish programs in the early 1960s, such as the “War on Poverty” and the “Great Society” to transform American way of life. In 1964 and 1965, he also bolstered the civil rights movement of the African Americans more than JFK could afford to (JFK’s slim coalition included Southern segregationists) by abolishing ballot-denying devices that had still been at large throughout the South. One of his key legislations, the Voting Rights Act of 1965 marked the end of peaceful, black civil rights demonstrations and the beginning of a new, militant method of blacks achieving civil rights on their own. (Known as “Black Power,” its goal was black separatism). These increasingly violent black rampages jarred anger in many white Americans, who threatened retaliation. His career hugely tainted by the course of the widely unpopular Vietnam conflict (the confrontation in Vietnam was not technically a war, since Congress has never actually declared war since the end of World War II), LBJ did end up changing American society, but not in the way he imagined. Due to his failure to explain to the public what was at stake in Vietnam, hostile protests to the war steadily intensified – especially among the youth– as LBJ’s draft continued to claim more young lives in the South East Asian slaughter pen. LBJ’s failure to end the confrontation in Vietnam was largely due to the lure of the power of the presidential office as well as his mindset that he was the new FDR. Since FDR had won World War II by instituting a draft, and since Americans didn’t change presidents in the midst of an international armed conflict, LBJ had allowed himself to deplete the United States of its most valuable resource: its people. The number of draft-dodgers grew dramatically, and the youth population of America became so opposed to the federal government’s actions that a counter-culture developed, advocating free love as well as peace. Following this drastic period in America history, a profound distrust of the government took root among the public.
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Part 1
Cammie Gelbuda
Period 1 & 4
Three presidents changed the whole identity of the United States during their time in office. The first president that made a change was Dwight D. Eisenhower, he completely changed the country’s economy; the next president John F. Kennedy was very much in touch with the younger population and restored a lot of the old social order; and the third was Lyndon B. Johnson he finalized a lot of legislation that everyone has been waiting for, and changed many people lives for the better. Therefore, these three presidents helped shape what our nation has become today and did so, during the 1950s-1960, which was very difficult era.
President Dwight D. Eisenhower, finally put an end to the conflict with Korea. During wartime, many countries suffered from men being taken away to war and losing money from fighting the war. Many families became poor. After Eisenhower stopped the Korean War the economy came back. They were no longer drafting young men into the war. A new culture began taking shape under Dwight D. Eisenhower. The average families in America during this era were part of the middle classes and many families had nice houses, two cars and more than one TV. Young people over this time were very influenced by TV and the advertisements that were shown. Commercials brought information to the youth of America, including brand names. During this time, there was a fear that spies were living in the United States. The government treated many people badly during this time and accused them of crimes without having enough evidence to convict them. The younger generations felt that the government was using to much power. This was the beginning of the Civil Rights Movement. The Civil Rights era was when African American people started demanding equal rights, like everyone else. Rosa Parks refused to sit at the back of the bus with the other backs, in 1955. President Eisenhower did not want to help the African American cause with the Civil Rights Movement and the country was ready to explode.
Part 2
Cammie Gelbuda
Period 1 & 4
Luckily, the next president following Dwight D. Eisenhower was John F. Kennedy, the youngest president we have ever had in history. Young people were attracted to his looks, and youthfulness. President Kennedy promised to take America into space. The country was excited about the “New Frontier” of space travel. Everyone wanted to send a spaceship to the moon and back, but never got the chance to do so. While a lot of the older generations were watching space travel the younger generations were beginning to protest the Vietnam War. This war divided the nation between older people that would serve their country without asking any questions and the youth movement which they questioned everything and protested over reasons for being in a new conflict. The youth of America during this time were known as the hippies and they continually protested for peace in Vietnam. The African Americans population of this time protested for equal rights. President John F. Kennedy gave a speech about the Civil Rights on TV, which the whole nation tuned into, and this helped the Civil Rights Movement. President Kennedy was than assassinated in 1963.
After president Kennedy was assassinated, Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson was inaugurated into office, on board Air Force One. Lyndon B. Johnson swore to continue what President Kennedy had once started. He promised to finish Kennedy’s Civil Rights legislation. Lyndon B. Johnson wrote the Civil Rights Act of 1964. President Johnson wanted to bring back the “Great Society” he wanted social reform and got it. President Johnson focused on education, poor people and race. He created a lot of laws and did so very quickly. In fact a lot of laws and programs are still being used today. For example, poor children have the opportunity to get an education. Also social security is still being used today. President Johnson attacked poverty and rebuilt cities slums, into nicer places to live.
From 1953 to 1969, these three presidents, Dwight D. Eisenhower, John F. Kennedy and Lyndon B. Johnson changed the rights and looks of the whole entire United States. This era of change is known as a time where young people knew they had a voice and could use it. African Americans received equal rights. The government began looking out for the education of kids that were born in poverty and keeping the environment clean and safe for the next generation to come.
As the final vestiges of World War Two and a global depression begin to fade, a new era dawned upon the nation. This new era will be characterized by its radical changes in social, political, and economic affairs in the United States. After FDR’s presidency the prestige of the office of the president was exponentially increased as the nation and the entire world looked to the president for guidance in this new and dangerous world. The Eisenhower, Kennedy, Johnson Administrations wielded immense power and each of these presidents played an essential role in shaping modern America. First the Eisenhower Administration modernized America by focusing on developing its infrastructure and by replacing the conventional military units with nuclear weapons, second the Kennedy Administration revolutionized America by supporting the civil rights movement and ramping up the space race, third the Johnson Administration changed America by pushing his Great Society programs and by waging the Vietnam War. These presidents have played important roles in transforming America to its modern form.
When Eisenhower was sworn as president, America was a very different place and still backwards in many respects when compared to today. One of Eisenhower’s greatest achievement as president was the creation of the Interstate Highway system. The Interstate Highway system brought a new level of unity in America as the entire nation was now interconnected through a system a roads and bridges. This plan was ultimately inspired by Eisenhower’s time in the military, and when he was tasked with transporting troops across the nation it was impossible. This inability to transport troop’s across the nation effectively worried Eisenhower as it was a nationality security threat that lied within the borders. Not only did the Interstate Highway system increase America’s preparedness for emergencies but it also helped spur new commerce in America. The new roads decreased the cost of shipping, while increasing its efficiency and allowing people to engage in commerce with other parts of the country with more ease. This building project commissioned by Eisenhower will revolutionize the economy because it will increase internal trade and promote national unity, which both are a part of modern America. The Interstate Highway system will show off the power and wealth of Federal Government and perpetuate the growth of Federal power that started with FDR’s Administration. During Eisenhower’s Administration the tensions between the United States and the Soviet Union grew dramatically. Eisenhower’s military strategy was to replace the standing Army with strategic and tactical nuclear warheads. This policy marked the slow death of conventional warfare and the rise modern warfare, which will be dominated by nuclear weapons. This move shows that Eisenhower sees that large standing armies are becoming less relevant in world where one bomb can decimate an entire city. Eisenhower’s actions as president will spur a nuclear arms race with Soviet Union, which will last for another 40 years and lingering effects of this arms race are still felt today with the fear unaccounted for nuclear weapons. Also the shift towards the buildup of nuclear arms will create a widespread hysteria in American society about the possibility of nuclear annihilation. This hysteria will carry through the decades and be centerpiece to the entire Cold War. The Eisenhower Administration spurred an economic revolution with development of the Interstate Highway system and started a nuclear arms race that will plague the entire second half of 20th century.
After eight years of the Eisenhower Administration controlling Washington, John F. Kennedy picked up the challenge of being president in a time of radical change. The Kennedy Administration unlike the Eisenhower Administration was vocal supporter of the civil rights movement. This support was first iterated in Kennedy’s first State of the Union Address and this was an epochal moment for the civil rights movement. The civil rights movement now had the world’s most powerful man supporting their cause and it comes to show that the social dynamic was changing in America. Kennedy’s use of presidential influence to support the civil rights movement will forever change American society because no president after him will ever oppose civil rights. It also showed how much America had changed since the early 1950’s, when civil rights was so insignificant and the president did not event take the time of day to address the issue. Kennedy also backed up his brave support of the civil rights movement with action, when James Meredith, a college student, was prevented from entering class. Kennedy responded to this by overpowering the state of Mississippi by sending in 400 federal marshals to allow Meredith to attend class. This shows how much America has changed since the 1950’s, when soldiers were put in front of schools to keep blacks out. Now soldiers are used to ensure that blacks have their right to an education. Another Kennedy initiative that revolutionized America was the escalation of the space race. The space race was instigated by the Soviets with launching of Sputnik but Kennedy in his speech at Rice University made the bold statement that America will land a man on the moon before the end of the decade. This bold statement will catalyze a technological revolution in American during this time. These technological advancements will be supported by the robust science and math education standards set by Kennedy. This will put America as the world leader in science and math and many students of this time will contribute to computer revolution many decades later. America’s change in technological capacity will be unprecedented and many inventions that will come from the space race would be unthinkable in the 1940’s and 1950’s. Also the space race will increase the United States technological superiority over the Soviet Union and diminish the technological lead they had over the U.S in the 1950s. The space race will ultimately be successful and it will show how America’s social, political, and economic forces can work together to achieve great advancements in technology and racial equality, while a midst the turbulent 1960’s.
As the shocking death of Kennedy rocked the nation, Lyndon Johnson took the helm of the nation and promised to finish what Kennedy could not. Johnson’s Great Society program was essential in redefining the American public’s view of government. His programs sought to wage a war on poverty and not the poor as an attempt reignite the flame of FDR. The Great Society created many programs like Medicare which provided healthcare to elderly with fixed income. This action by Johnson was an attempt to bring back the New Deal fervor in the American public and show people that the government will take care of them like it did during the depression years. Another provision of the Great Society was to increase funding to schools and provide special education to schools with a high density of low-income children. This program helped ensure that educational reforms made earlier in the decade hold tight and make sure that a lack of money would not strangle the educational system. Johnson’s Great Society programs changed American’s expectations from their government and provided for the first a true safety net that can allow people to sleep at night. This comes to show that a majority of American society believes that we should take care of our poor and this new mindset is rediscovered with Johnson’s Great Society. On the other hand the war Johnson was waging in Southeast Asia was extremely unpopular amongst the youth. During the war the counter culture was passionately against the U.S involvement in Vietnam. The counter culture was everything opposite of the 1950’s and it was quickly redefining the values that dominated the previous decade. The backlash to Johnson’s war also showed that America’s commitment to containing communism has drastically decreased. It shows that America’s red scare had greatly decreased but the fear nuclear was still well and alive in America. Overall Johnson’s social programs changed America’s perception on the Government and his war created large amounts social unrest amongst the youth.
American society from Eisenhower’s Administration to Johnson’s had greatly changed. Eisenhower helped modernize the infrastructure in America and modernize its military capabilities while inadvertently sparking a nuclear arms race. Kennedy’s support of the civil rights movement will help promote racial equality in the United States and forget its bigoted past and his space program will spark a technological revolution in America. Finally Johnson’s social programs will provide the care the poor needed and the Vietnam War will stain his legacy and create much social unrest. These three president’s administrations have forever changed America.
Throughout the administrations of Ike, JFK, and LBJ, the shape of the American society had gone through both destructions and constructions. Some constructions caused more constructions, while others led to social destructions. We see these social reforms in first, the Ike administration; second, JFK’s administration; and third, LBJ’s administration.
During the administration of Dwight D. Eisenhower, the Eisenhower Doctrine was enacted in the beginning year of 1957. This doctrine announced that the United States would aid the Middle East if they were threatened by communism. In 1954, the Board was presented with the argument of Oliver Brown. Brown argued that school segregation should be illegal. Though in 1896, the Board declared that separate but equal was legal, the Board overturned itself and decided that segregated schools are illegal and will be banned. Eisenhower had not agreed with this decision, as he told his speechwriter, Arthur Larson. But President Eisenhower had changed his mind after the 1957 Little Rock Nine had occurred and Ike turned to support the Boards decision. This decision and supporting by the president of non-segregated schools was a big change to the society at the time, as many whites actively and in some cases violently protested to even being in the same building as blacks. Little Rock Nine showed the American society that whether the people like it or not, equality will be obtained and upholded. To further increase the American dream of everybody having their own individual Civil Rights, the SNCC fought side by side with the SCLC for the Civil Rights movement. As for the business part of America, rather than dismantle and tear apart the liberal policies of FDR and Truman, he expounded on them. He raised the minimum wage, increased union rights, developed federal policies to help states, especially with things like the national highways act, which created the crumbling interstates we have today. Because the image of Eisenhower was one that resembled Teddy Roosevelt, conservatives hated what he was doing, no matter how many problems he would have solved. Eisenhower fell to be known for being one of the most least influential president the United States has had. The next president, however, was not among the favorite of the American people, due to his young age compared to those before him, and the fact that Kennedy was not a follower of the usual religion, Christianity as he was a Catholic.
Next we see the reforms in John F. Kennedy’s administration of the short two years of 1961-1963. Perhaps one of the most incidents during all three of these presidents was the Bay of Pigs. Reaching from the end of Eisenhower’s administration and to the beginning of JFK’s, the CIA developed a plan to train the Cuban exiles, and send them into Cuba hoping that the Cuban people would support this invasion and overthrow the communistic leader Castro, in hopes of establishing a friendly Government to the United States. The first problem that had happened in this invasion was the first bombing raid. World War II B-26 bombers were over the Cuban airbases and were ordered to bomb the airbases. Many of the targets were missed and most of the bases were left untouched and ready to fight back. When the ground forces reached the beaches off the Bay of Pigs, heavy fire was laid on the Cuban exiles. Not before long, the Cuban air forces took down two escort ships, and brought down more than half of the invaders air support. The public has now seen the Bay of Pigs Invasion and it came present that the threat of communism was now turned toward the United States. Because of this, Kennedy knew that he had to show the people that he was in charge of this conflict, and that communism will not overpower nationalism. In 1961, the US approved of the NSAM
52. The NSAM 52 declared that the United States will not allow South Vietnam to fall to the looming influence of communism. The NSAM 52 was not solely to protect the South Vietnamese, but it was also used to strengthen the current state of South Vietnam.
In the first administration of Lyndon B. Johnson, he was given an opportunity. Because of the sudden assassination of JFK, LBJ was provided with the remaining eleven months to fulfill the climatic opportunity to continue the promises that JFK made, and show the American people that he was worthy to serve as president on his own terms. Johnson had first turned his attention to one of the two very important acts during this time period, the Civil Rights Bill that JFK tried to get passed with no success. Citizens at this time were arguing that even the Constitution gave all people their unalienable rights, absed on the “All Men Are Created Equal.” This Civil Rights Bill was crucial for the time, as it outlawed the practice of discrimination based on sex or ethnicity. Because of this document, more and new opportunities were opened for specifically the African Americans at the time. The next document that Johnson signed off on was the Economic Opportunity Act of 1964. The Economic Opportunity Act of 1964 was designed so that it would prepare the American citizens to have a chance in grabbing hold of a stable job in the constantly growing country. This act, however, did not just work by itself; it was conjoined together with previous acts, such as the VISTA, job Corps, and the Headstart system. There were special sections of the Economic opportunity Act that specified on giving young men and women between the ages of 16 and 21 chances of obtaining the highest of their ability, and getting a job because of it. Although this act had good intentions, and was capable of fulfilling those intentions, the escalation of the Vietnam War cried for more and more money to provide for it, which caused funding for the Economic Opportunity Act to deplete and render the act useless. Nixon had also halted the funding for this act which just furthered the ending of the Economic Opportunity Act.
Anthony Luna
Period 3&4
Between the mid fifties and late sixties the American Society changed in a variety of different ways. These changes were in response to important issues in; one, society because there was a huge movement for civil rights; two, new foreign policies would create the counterculture, this would lead to distrust of the government; three, the United States would experience it's longest uninterrupted economic expansion in history. These three factors evolved the American society into what it is today.
In 1853, Dwight Eisenhower would become president and initiate conservative programs. He would continue New Deal programs, such as Social Security and he would expand programs to create the Department of Health, Welfare and Education. He also would push for the Interstate Highway System, this would provide a measure of continued economic growth. Ike would also articulate the domino theory, this would later lead to the involvement in Vietnam and that would help the counterculture movement gain momentum in the 60's. Eisenhower and his administration would advocate racial discrimination as a national security issue. Later, segregation in schools was declared unconstitutional in Brown vs Board of Education. Eisenhower would also propose the Civil Rights Acts of 1957 and 1960, they would be the first since 1875. These acts would create a permanent civil rights department in the Justice Department and a Civil Rights Commission to hear testimonies of abuses to voting rights. Thus America's society would be rid of segregation with help from the government. Society however would try to resist these changes, an example being the events taking place at Little Rock high school. Eisenhower would have to send in the 101st Airborne Division to protect the nine black students from those who didn't agree with desegregation.
Jfk's presidency would start in 1961 and end in 1963, due to his assassination. Kennedy would end a period of tight fiscal policies, and he would keep interest rates down and encourage the growth of the economy. GDP expanded by an average of 5.5% from early 1961 to late 1963, while inflation remained steady at around 1% and unemployment eased. This meant that more people were working and the economy prospered under the Kennedy administration. Kennedy was also very much against racial discrimination however did little to take action against it because he feared that southern whites would be outraged and nothing would get passed through Congress (Congress was mostly made up of Southern Democrats). Kennedy would also be more concerned with the Cold War at this time. While the government set idle at this time against the issues of civil rights, people like Martin Luther King Jr. would fight against segregation and for civil rights, of course, non violently. Many peaceful protests would take place during this time such as, bus boycotts, marches, and through speeches. This shows that society had split into two sides, and these two sides would fight against each other, however eventually African Americans would receive their civil rights.
Anthony Luna
(Continued)
Lyndon B. Johnson, or LBJ, gets the presidency in 1963 and it will go until 1969. LBJ would overcome the southern resistance and pass the Civil Rights Act of 1964. This would outlaw most forms of racial segregation. Later he would pass another civil rights bill, the Voting Rights Acts. This would outlaw discrimination in voting. This would allow millions of southern blacks to vote for the first time. This would give society more racial diversity at the voting ballot and give blacks more rights that they had been fighting for. Society's condition would continue to improve with LBJ's Great Society programs. The Great Society programs would aid to education, attack on disease, Medicare, Medicaid, urban renewal, conservation, development of depressed regions, a wide-scale fight against poverty, control and prevention of crime, and removal of obstacles to the right to vote. LBJ would give federal funding to education, conduct a war against poverty, and had health care reforms. Funding for education would allow poor kids to go school, thus curing ignorance and poverty. As for the War on Poverty, LBJ would pass the Revenue Act of 1964 and the Economic Opportunity Act. He would create programs such as Medicare, which today covers tens of millions of Americans. Due to LBJ's bills and programs, societies poverty dropped from twenty three percent to twelve percent.
American Society would evolve for the better, however it wasn't an easy or smooth process. Society would become more equal, poverty would drop, and society would become more economically stable. Ike's, JFK's, and LBJ's policies would help society evolve and advance for the better.
Tristan Mauricio
Periods 1&6
5/22/13
(Part 1) After the baby boomers of World War II ad grown up they would inspire new social reforms from 1955-1968, yet this era was controversial, some regarded this period as destructive and others saw this era as constructive. To the end of the frightening events that took place in the late 50’s and throughout the 60’s the society that we had struggled to preserve would undergo a metamorphosis in which we would never be the same. Socially, Counterculture would become a trend that would sweep the nation and influence what the United States’ role in the world and The Civil Rights Movement would demand tolerance of all Americans; Economically the United States would become one of the countries that would consistently compete in national affairs which would manifest into the Cold War; and politically the United States would transform into a machine that could out-do anything or anyone that got into its way. Therefore Socially, Economically, and Politically the United States would take its first steps as a Superpower and the essence of American Society would become something else entirely.
Social Reform was a topic that was regularly touched upon during this era especially those regarding integration and advocating peace in a troublesome Earth. The Civil Rights Movement would begin underneath Truman’s administration with the eradication of the “Separate but equal” legislation underneath the ground breaking case Brown vs. Board of Education. Underneath the overturned law the Supreme Court encouraged integration and would eventually ban segregation in schools nationwide, and with the thought of equal opportunity leaders of this movement such as Martin Luther King would exercise this right. The first sign of distress in respect to this law was at Little Rock, Arkansas where nine African American students would be escorted to and from school and throughout the halls by the 101st Airborne the division that was responsible for taking down Hitler in World War II.Many see the start of this movement with Rosa Parks, a stubborn supporter of African American Rights, when she refused to surrender her seat to a white man as it was the norm and eventually she would be arrested. Leaders of this movement had different approaches to protest and for the most part peaceful methods were most common with sit-ins or marches. However officers of the law or keepers of the peace did not respect these protests, some such as Birmingham police commissioner Eugene “Bull” Connor would inflict pain on these non-violent protesters with dogs, fire hoses, or clubs to disrupt and hopefully discontinue these protests. Politicians in Congress were lukewarm to the Civil Rights Movement and reluctant to show support even the President JFK, yet all of that changed after Martin Luther King successfully broadcasted his “I have a dream speech” in which most would recognize and support Civil Rights for everyone regardless of color. During the 1960’s the “baby boomers” of Post WWII would become young adults and launch campaigns against the violence of War and advocate peace. Although most of the youth during this obscure decade was not involved in the Counter Culture Movement their voices would still is echoed in American Society and through the history books. After the failures of the Korean War, the Cold War getting hotter, and the growing public disapproval of the huge military operations in Vietnam the United States was tired of their involvement in the War. To the baby boomers, the greatest generation in American History was too strict, the “normal” American family that was embodied in 1950’s sitcoms such as “Leave it to Beaver” was one that became a joke. The new generation that had been sent to school to study science or math became rebellious giving birth to the first drug induced peace loving hippies. These hippies were the embodiment of this era, by the end of LBJ’s presidency hippies was the spear point of public distaste to end the police action in Vietnam sending a controversial era in history.
(Part 2)After the end of World War II there were only two major countries that had not been ravaged by the horrors of war. The United States and the Soviet Union had emerged as the sole superpowers and had gradually begun to compete against each other to gain the upper hand in world affairs, we had an influence all over the world at that point in regards to the large amounts of assistance we provided foreign countries. Foreign governments could not support themselves for a number of reasons, to support our alliance President Truman would pass the Truman Doctrine stating that we would provide all of our resources and power to support anyone that needed help, that notion remains in worldwide affairs up until this day. The United States would not only provide for them but also provide for the entire World. From the passage of the Truman Doctrine, the United States and the Soviet Union would engage in an intense competition that would persist four decades later. The Marshall Plan was passed to provide economic assistance to Eastern European countries since that was where the most assistance was needed, we provided Greece and Turkey with livestock and farming tools to get the farmers providing once again. For the next couple decades we would provide likewise assistance for numerous countries just as the Soviets would continue to establish “satellite states”. The spread of Communism terrified the United States and all of the “free countries” ushering in the Cold War.
On the World scale the United States and the Soviet Union had the most influence and the two conflicting countries were on a crash course of collision. The Cold War would escalate from spreading their influence in distant countries halfway across the world to armed conflict that would separate countries. Of course the United States was a democratic nation and saw the spread of communism as a resounding issue as showed in purges of the “Red Scares” which resembled the Salem Witch Trials as people claimed other people being something they weren’t. The first instance of the major conflict we had with the Soviets was in the peninsula of Korea. The communist manifesto had spread into the northern portion of the country which had wanted the entire country to follow suit, yet the Southern wanted the opposite. In fear of losing thousands of lives such as the democratic fighters in Hungary who happened to be in the shadow of the Iron Curtain, we would supplant military advisors. The eruption of War would steadily stream American Soldiers into the country; similar conflicts would emerge such as the one in Vietnam. The Korean and Vietnam Wars were the bloodiest conflicts of the Cold War but so few instances have led to the near outbreak of World War III, as the Iron Curtain slowly expanded so did the level of security and precautions taken to protect America. In fear of the growth of satellite states underneath Soviet Control nuclear weapons were being strategically placed in case of War, the Soviets did not approve of these emplacements especially the missiles placed in Turkey which was suspiciously close to Soviet Lines. In retaliation the Soviets would send their nuclear weapons to Cuba, a mere 90 mile boat ride from Florida, The States did not approve of this at all as they ordered the immediate disarmament and removal of the nuclear missiles. And as the short stalemate played itself out tensions were so high that World War III could have happened at any moment, luckily a deal was made and the situation was promptly disarmed. The United States during the mid 1900s became important that it would not only speak and protect itself but the world entirely even providing aid to the fading Soviet Union until its inevitable end.
Amanda Jerd
Periods 3 and 6
The time period from 1955-1968 was one of positive growth and change for the American people. Under three different presidents, Eisenhower, Kennedy, and Johnson, America suffered and solved many social, political, and economic concerns. The influence of previous presidents – such as Harry Truman – directly influenced the future of the land of the free and its new leaders. The three presidents during this time period solved national issues like civil rights, global crises such as the Cold War, and economic ups and downs caused by war and inflation. These three men almost single-handedly made the era what it was; each had their own triumphs and downfalls, but overall shaped America to be stronger.
Bella Crosson
Period 1 & 4
The United States, from the time of 1955 to 1968, was in the middle of great political modifications, along with frequent economic variations and enormous cultural confusion. Much of this is thanks to the presidents of the time – Dwight D. Eisenhower, John F. Kennedy, and Lyndon B. Johnson. Their politics dramatically and effectively changed the lives of each and every American citizen to this day. First, Dwight D. Eisenhower directed the country though a peace period, as America focused on her core concerns; second, John F. Kennedy, showing the struggling strategy of the federal government, stepped into many substantial foreign encounters; third, Lyndon B. Johnson jumped into many different dangerous situations trying to balance both foreign wars and great internal affairs. Thus, for these three presidents and there administrations, the late 1950s and 1960s were critical in the way that the United States wanted to rid themselves of its past outlooks but, at the same time, constructive in that the people, along with the government, were shaped into a brand new nation.
Harry Truman, Dwight D. Eisenhower’s predecessor, left a strong economy for his successor to work with, almost handing him a stress free presidency. However, unlike Truman, Eisenhower had a more small government viewpoint and halted most of the military spending. He instead focused on the more inner problems at hand, particularly in the act which built over 42,000 miles of crisscrossing highways across the country – The Highway Act of 1956. This, along with the easy access to cheap automobiles, led to the growth of the suburbs. Called the “white flight”, these new suburbs were home to many whites trying the escape the now multi-racial cities. Also, Eisenhower’s “new look” started to push the army and the navy to the backburner and brought to the front the air fleet of super bombers known as the Strategic Air Command. This helped the space business grow substantially with the help of some new technology and science, which also stimulated a growing economic success. Now, the definition of the American way of living came from the consumerism, and many people – especially the middle class – now found themselves able to afford a comfortable living after much saving. This new introduction of money in the families led to the “must haves” of the teen age culture. With the introduction of the Rolling Stones and iconic rock star Elvis Presley, not excluding the Beatles, appealed greatly to the teen age generation, much to the dissatisfaction of their parents. The fear of communism was sneaking into the minds of most of the citizens of the United States, most remarkably through the famous Red Scare started by Senator McCarthy. By ruining many different careers, his accusations also kept the American people’s fears on a more exterior level. Reversing the Plessy vs. Ferguson “separate but equal” ideal, the Brown vs. Board of Education brought in the African American Civil Rights movement to the verge of its own break through. Although unable to officially aid the movement, Eisenhower was able to interject in the Little Rock Nine incident of 1957. The calm before the storm, Dwight D. Eisenhower’s presidency ended just before the new underlying tension of the Cold War coming in the next decade.
Ending the era of disillusionment, Kennedy’s jump into the presidency, bringing with him all his energy sprung America into a new era. The 1961 Bay of Pigs Invasion – only just three months into his presidency – proved to be a fatal disaster for almost 1200 anti-Castro refugees as they were slaughtered left and right at the Bay. In the next year, the Cuban Missile Crisis marked the new beginning of continuous tension between the United States and the Soviet Union. However, President John F. Kennedy pushed for a more “flexible response” and called for many different military options, instead of the normal massive retaliation ideal. Unfortunately the spreading American fears of what was happening in enemy territories was aggravated further with the literal division of Europe in the form of the barbed wire and brick fenced Iron Curtain separating communism from democracy. With the promise of a “New Frontier”, Kennedy swore to have a man step on to the moon within the next ten years. This was worked on diligently by the space industry – NASA – to accomplish this goal. Unfortunately, the Soviet Union beat the United States in this space race. A firm supporter in the Civil Rights movement, Kennedy did not, however, advocate for the movement until near the end of his term. African Americans, tired of being discriminated and looked down upon, rose under their leader Martin Luther King Jr. who advocated for non-violent protests to achieve their goal – the end of discrimination. Months before his life would end, President JFK gave a speech in 1963 depicting his want for a new Civil Right administration after the publicized violent handlings of the peaceful protesters by the many different American police forces. Martin Luther King Jr. then led his “March on Washington”, followed by 200,000 of his supporters, where he delivered his ever famous “I Have A Dream” speech on the steps of the Lincoln Memorial. Sadly, Kennedy’s dream for the citizens of America came to a screeching halt on November 22, 1962 in Dallas, Texas, where he was shot three times by Lee Harvey Oswald. The young Vice President LBJ was now faced with a grieving country and the task of carrying on JFK’s legacy.
Lyndon Baines Johnson, although in many ways similar to Kennedy, tried to juggle too many things at one time. He at first welcomed his great popularity due to the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, ending racial discrimination in many of the private services. Also, the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission was created, thanks to the memory John F. Kennedy left behind. Several riots, however, popped in cities across the country as the African American rights supporters now advocated for more violent riots under Malcolm X and the Black Panther Party. To make matter worse, the assassination of Martin Luther King Jr. robbed this movement of their most inspiration leader. Extending federal power, Johnson was able to drop the poverty level from 21 percent in 1962 to only 11 percent in 1973, a 10 percent difference. The Great Society greatly contributed to this new deficit. Also, the tension in Vietnam erupted in 1965 with LBJ’s order to retaliate against the North Vietnam bombings soon after the Pleiku American air base was attacked. Only a month later, America was involved in a full scale bombing war against the northern Vietnam counterpart. This fighting in Vietnam quickly became very unpopular thanks to it being the first war televised. People across the country were enrage, particularly the college age citizens, and there were many college campus uprisings. This turned out to be the downfall of Johnson, as his popularity soon turned into repulsion.
Edith Chavez
Period 1&6
The late 50s and 60s saw the US shift from the general public being conformists to counterculture activists suddenly arising with deeply contrasting attitudes to the conformists before them. The main causes of the shift came from the presidencies of Eisenhower, Kennedy, and Johnson and an extent even those of Truman before those three and Nixon after them. The economy would be unstable with poverty remaining high; there was growing disillusionment with the government as it had too many failures in the eyes of the people; and society was quickly becoming more and more turbulent. These three main factors affected the US so greatly that such a drastic shift in attitude occurred.
Eisenhower got the country from Truman with a great economy. Reasons for the high health of the economy included the GI Bill of Rights which allowed servicemen to quickly gain jobs as well as being able to get a free higher education and keeping the country from slipping back into a depression like the one preceding World War II. After receiving a higher education for free, they could get high paying jobs, resulting in a high percentage of the population that could spend like crazy, boosting the economy. In addition to the successes of returning servicemen in finding a place in the economy, the country was also benefitting from the rationing and saving attitude that had taken hold during the Great Depression and the continued during World War II. With the success of the GI Bill, President Eisenhower could then pass his own Interstate Highway Act through Congress which allowed for greater mobility across the country. The automobile had gained popularity decades before already so by the time this came around, the people were happy to start using it and this led to another boost in the economy. Building the new highways gave people jobs and improved the economy even more. The new surplus of money and the spending habits of the American people led to consumerism in the US. This was further aided by the teenagers that now had allowance and could go on shopping sprees. Turman’s Fair Deal- an extension of the New Deal- [PARENTHESIS] was seen as a liberal failure and this led to growing conservatism during Eisenhower that had taken hold in the last years of the Truman administration. The large amount of conservatism wasn’t enough to pass everything Eisenhower wanted. Eisenhower was unable to lessen the effects of the Cold War on the country and as a result he also couldn’t cut back on military spending which kind of also impacted the US populace. The people were largely dissatisfied as a result of this especially with how the Red Scare came about and so many people were ruined. Political tensions domestically were high and political tensions internationally were also high. [PARALLEL STRUCTURE] Eisenhower did intervene in Little Rock to make the African American Students could go to school but otherwise failed to take care of the social issues in the country.
otherwise failed to take care of the social issues in the country.
Kennedy’s administration so the Cold War heat up and this ended up defining his presidency. He tried the Bay of Pigs invasion in order to fight the war though this was a total failure. Its failure made the Allies worry, most of them had joined the US because of the strength the country had shown fulfilling the Marshall Plan they worried even more as the attempted invasion ticked off the Soviet Union and its allies. The Cuban Missile Crisis also plagued Kennedy and in trying to get out of the situation, he had to give up having missiles able to bomb Soviet Russia so it couldn’t be seen as a failure or success. The heating up Cold War caused the “proxy war” in Vietnam to heat up, but Kennedy failed to meet the needs of the South Vietnamese and the conflict was quickly starting to seem like a failure even within the Kennedy administration. The Vietnamese- and mostly the peasants- [PARENTHESIS] increasingly preferred the communist North Vietnamese as a result of the US failures. The failures took their toll on the effectiveness of Kennedy as president since he couldn’t fulfill his promise to the people about fighting primarily poverty and racism and addressing some of the more minor issues as well. The Civil Rights movement never got much support from the president or the government as a whole because of how it saw the Cold War as the top priority and left alone the issues on the inside of the country. The Civil Rights Movement then gained momentum because of the disillusioned people trying to look elsewhere for help and aid in finally get equal rights and treatment. Kennedy largely failed to gain support from Congress to accomplish his goals but NASA was able to come into existence and this produced several benefits for the country despite the costs.
President Johnson followed Kennedy and was seen as a greater failure than his predecessor. LBJ decided to stay in Vietnam to achieve a total victory but this was mostly an excuse. He felt the war could be used to make him look good though that largely backfired and caused unrest within the country. The Gulf of Tonkin incident led to the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution which gave the president a blank check to do whatever he wanted for the Vietnam Conflict and he decided to increase the number of deployed groups which proved largely unpopular with the people. Conflict quickly got worse and the government committed an increasing number of mistakes in fighting the proxy war leading to even greater dislike of the war by the US populace and divide between politically differently minded people. The college students, feminists, and hippies united together with the common goal of getting out of the conflict let the Vietnamese be on their own. The Vietnam Conflict took LBJ’s attention away from his Great Society which would have primarily fought poverty. [PERSONIFICATION] He was at least a little more successful than his predecessor at aiding the Civil Rights movement, exemplified by the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965. [PARENTHESIS] Despite these efforts, chaos still came about in 1968 with several race riots breaking out all over the country and Martin Luther King Jr. was assassinated. The economy was fine under his presidency though this was largely because it was fine when he received it and couldn’t be seen as either a pro or con of his presidency.
The society in the United States continuously grew more and more chaotic as caused by the presidencies of these three men. It started with Eisenhower and his failure to really address the social problems in the country with Red Scare only adding to the chaos, Kennedy suffered from the large number of issues caused by the Cold War, and LBJ furthered the toll of the Vietnam Conflict on the public opinion of the government and country as a whole- his presidency involving the breaking point of chaos within the country best exemplified by the Chicago protests of the Democratic National Convention. The combined effects of the three presidencies were what fueled the evolution of American society at this time.
All graded up to this point.
Steven Fraser
Period 6
From 1955 to 1968, the United States was thrown into massive cultural upheaval, economic fluctuations, and political change. Much of this can be attributed to the presidencies of Dwight D. Eisenhower, John F. Kennedy, and Lyndon B. Johnson, seeing as their policies dramatically affected the American people of the time, and the American people of today. First, Dwight D. Eisenhower led the nation through a relatively calm decade as America focused on internal issues; second, John F. Kennedy stepped into massive foreign showdowns that showed the floundering policy of the government; and third, Lyndon B. Johnson leaped into dangerous entanglements with trying to balance internal improvements with chaotic foreign war. Therefore, because of the presidencies of these three men, the 1960s was destructive in that America was rid of its previous mindsets, but constructive in that the people and the government were shaped into a new nation.Eisenhower’s predecessor, Harry Truman, left behind a healthy economy for Eisenhower to work with, handing him his relaxed presidency. Unlike Truman, Eisenhower had a small government philosophy and put the brakes on enormous military spending (although it was still at 10 percent of the GNP). He focused on internal improvements, most notably his Interstate Highway Act in 1956 which built 42,000 miles of highways that crisscrossed the country. This, coupled with the cheap and easy access to the automobile, led to the growing of suburbia. Famously dubbed the “White Flight”, these expanding suburbs were the home of mostly whites fleeing the more racially diverse cities. Eisenhower’s “New Look” pushed the army and navy into the backseat in favor of an air fleet of super bombers (Strategic Air Command). Because of this, the aerospace industry grew fanatically with the help of new science and technology, spurring economic success and growth. American consumerism came to define the American way of living, as many citizens- especially the middle class- found themselves in the possession of plenty of money after the long war filled years of saving, saving, saving. Increases in advertising led to the mindset of “must have”- especially in teen culture. Music icons such as rock star Elvis Presley and the British Rolling Stones and Beatles appealed to this baby boomer generation, much to the distaste of their parents. Although this American life seemed perfect at a glance, the fear of communism was still abroad, most notably through the Red Scare by Senator McCarthy. His accusations kept American fears above the surface as he ruined countless numbers of careers. The African American Civil Rights movement was also at the verge of its break through with the decision in Brown v. Board of Education which reversed the Plessy v. Ferguson concept of “separate but equal”. Although Eisenhower was not keen to aid the movement, he did intervene during the Little Rock Nine in 1957, sending in federal troops to escort these nine students safely to school. The Cold War abroad and underlying tension within the nation made Eisenhower’s presidency the calm before the storm, as the nation experienced massive turmoil in the ensuing decade.
Kennedy sprung into the presidency with invigorating energy on the heels of Eisenhower’s success and almost immediately launched America into a new era, as it ended its decade of disillusionment. The Bay of Pigs Invasion in 1961- barely three months after his inauguration- proved a disaster as approximately 1200 anti-Castro exiles were slaughtered at the Bay. The following year, the distressing Cuban Missile Crisis marked the definite continuation of tense relations between the Soviet Union and the United States. However, unlike the previous theory of “massive retaliation”, Kennedy pushed for “flexible response”, which called for an array of military options that could be used depending on the situation. American fears of happenings on the other side were worsened in 1961 with the division of Europe through the “Iron Curtain” of brick and barbed wire fence, firmly separating democracy from communism. Kennedy increased the number of military advisers in South Vietnam in 1961 and two years later organized a coup against dictator Diem, leaving the soon exploding Vietnam chaos to his successor. Kennedy promised the American nation a “New Frontier” and swore to have a man step on the moon within the next ten years. Easier said than done, this goal was worked on tirelessly by the space industry (NASA) to accomplish Kennedy’s goal and beat the Soviet Union in the “space race”. Although Kennedy was a firm Civil Rights supporter, he did not advocate for the movement until near the end of his short term in office. However, angry and long discriminated against African Americans rose up under the leadership of Martin Luther King Junior who advocated for peaceful protests to achieve the end of discrimination. Kennedy gave a speech in 1963, just months before his assassination, calling for new Civil Right legislation after the TV broadcasts of violent attacks on peaceful protestors by the police. MLK then led 200,000 supporters on a “March on Washington” in August of 1963 where he then delivered his famed “I Have a Dream” speech. Kennedy’s own dream for America was cut short when he was killed by Henry Lee Oswald’s three bullets on November 22, 1963 in Dallas, Texas. Grieving, the shocked and saddened nation turned to young President’s VP to carry on the ideas and spirit of Kennedy.Lyndon Baines Johnson, similar to Kennedy, had great dreams for the nation, but tried to juggle too much all at once. He at first enjoyed overwhelming success and popularity with the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which ended racial discrimination in many private facilities open to the public and created the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, passed with great thanks to Kennedy’s lasting memory. With the end of the poll tax in 1964 with the 24th Amendment, the Civil rights movement focused on opening up the polling booths the blacks in the South. However, several riots erupted in cities across the nation as black rights were now advocated for by violent riots with leaders like Malcolm X and the Black Panther Party. Furthermore, MLK’s assassination in 1968 robbed the movement of its most powerful leader. Johnson pushed forward his “Great Society” plan, a set of economic and welfare measures aimed at aiding and transforming American life. This included his famous War on Poverty in addition to aid to education, city reform, end to discrimination, protection of the environment, and consumer advocacy. Johnson extended federal power greatly and the poverty level dropped from 21 percent in 1962 to 11 percent in 1973. Although there was a massive tax cut that spurred the economy, the Great Society contributed to the deficit. Furthermore, the previous escalating tension in Vietnam exploded in 1965 when LBJ ordered retaliatory bombing raids of North Vietnam after the American air base at Pleiku, South Vietnam was attacked. One month later, America was ordering regular full-scaling bombing against the communist northern counterpart.
Although Johnson had many domestic triumphs, his administration become overshadowed by the “conflict” in Vietnam as it tried to balance the strain of domestic and foreign policy. The fighting in Vietnam quickly became very unpopular. Being the first war shown on TV, the public was able to see the atrocities committed on both sides. College students were especially enraged and rioted on college campuses. These protests quickly turned violent as police got involved and protesters were killed. Vietnam was Johnson’s downfall, as his popularity was turned into disgust, and he decided not to run in the 1968 presidential election.The administrations of Eisenhower, Kennedy, and Johnson all changed and impacted American life socially, economically, and politically through the controversial decades of their presidencies.
All grading complete up to this point.
From the proposition of the “Open Skies” plan presented by President Eisenhower in 1955 at the Geneva Convention, to the end of Lyndon Baines Johnson’s “Great Society” administration, the identity of American society found a dramatic change as domestic and political affairs alike aged the nation’s policies as it did its leaders. The controversial 1960’s reflected several victories and crippling defeats in each presidential term that ultimately defined the age for both its renown and infamy. American society experienced both destructive and constructive events through these president’s contributions: first, president Eisenhower’s domestic and foreign affairs that maintained international peace and protected the American economy; second, President Kennedy’s unique actions that introduced a focus on the youth culture while preventing nuclear war, and thirdly, President Lyndon Baines Johnson’s decisions to improve national affairs through medical, educational, and civil rights programs. These presidents all sought to preserve national peace and prosperity, as each influenced each other towards the gradual growth of federal administration, in hopes of seeing a greater growth of the rapidly changing United States.
Following President Harry S. Truman’s presidency, retired general Dwight Eisenhower executed orders not to initiate military conflict, but to prevent it. With growing instability between communist Russia and capitalist US, Eisenhower maintained a peaceful presidency during the Cold War, and signed a peace treaty between North and South Korea in 1953, and initiated the “Open Skies” policy with Russia to prevent secrecy during a growing nuclear arms race. Eisenhower, with his unmatched military experience in the White House and his wise actions, prevented another world war from consuming the planet not less than a decade after the second one was finished. Yet Eisenhower failed to end the Cold War, as an American U2 spy plane was shot down over Russia, while Senator Joseph McCarthy irrationally hunted down communism in the United States. Despite few mishaps, the aged president still brought great prosperity and economic growth to the US as he pursued an mix of New Deal and Fair Deal policies as he expanded Social Security, and supported the Interstate Highway Act of 1956, which countless jobs were created as the nation was uplifted into suburbanization. Even though Eisenhower failed to act on several affairs including the civil rights movement (besides the Little Rock affair) and McCarthy’s ludicrous actions, he was able to point the economy towards balance and peace. Through his decisions was crisis averted, as his administration saw the skies clear for a few years until JFK’s presidency.
(Part 2) The youngest president ever inaugurated, John F. Kennedy issued in several unheard of policies and decisions during his administration of “The New Frontier”. While also being the first Roman Catholic president, Kennedy created a respectable and admirable image for his nation, as he encountered the greatest struggle with the Soviet Union during the Cold War, while establishing the Peace Corps to suggest greater civil liberties, and the space race to further elevate American culture. Eventually following the intense crisis, Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushev’s power was reduced as Kennedy averted nuclear war, while still dismantling low-tech missile sites in Turkey to satisfy Russian paranoia. JFK’s careful decisions truly ended a possible nuclear war with Russia, but not truly resolving international conflict, as was shown during the failed Bay of Pigs invasion in Cuba, and a “proxy war” in Vietnam in 1961 attempts to support dwindling South Vietnam against communist North Vietnam in 1961. Following the principles of “flexible response”, developed by Defense Secretary McNamara, and also those of American diplomat George F. Keenan and his “containment doctrine” from 1947, JFK sought to establish a military response force to the growth of communism in Asia by creating the Green Berets to effectively quell the guerrilla tactics of the Vietnamese. Though his presidency issued in a focus on the younger American, and pursued a new age under his New Frontier plan, most of those plans to were not executed during his presidency, and America did not see the first man land on the moon until after his assassination. Nevertheless, under his administration, Kennedy generated excitement in the American people as the United States emerged into the “information age”.
While President Kennedy’s attractive energy and charisma spurred a call to change, his succeeding president Lyndon Baines Johnson created change in the nation. President Johnson’s actions focused on providing for the American people through his “Great Society” administration. One of his first actions as president were to finish what Kennedy hand fought for, a civil rights amendment, banning any and all discrimination between American citizens, and later the 24th amendment to end the voting poll tax in 1964. While the deceased JFK initiated a national pursuit to better American society, LBJ’s administration focused and executed that pursuit. President Johnson therefore chose to continue a passion for creating a great society, as his administration was named so. The president’s administration followed under four successful legislative achievements during his declared War on Poverty, including aid to education, and medical care for the elderly through Medicare in 1965, immigration reform, and a new voting rights bill; while being successful, Johnson was unable to really end poverty, created riots in the black ghettos, all while the Vietnam Conflict was occurring from 1955 to 1975. In his pursuit for peace, Johnson left many holes that created a deeper dependency on welfare and made poverty difficult to overcome for the already poor, as was criticized by historical writers like Charles Murray and Lawrence Meade. Despite these criticisms, LBJ’s quest for peace ultimately left greater social balance, even during an undeclared war, as African Americans now had their rights, and social security was expanded, and would influence President Nixon to improve federal aid and welfare to the nation.
(Part 2) The youngest president ever inaugurated, John F. Kennedy issued in several unheard of policies and decisions during his administration of “The New Frontier”. While also being the first Roman Catholic president, Kennedy created a respectable and admirable image for his nation, as he encountered the greatest struggle with the Soviet Union during the Cold War, while establishing the Peace Corps to suggest greater civil liberties, and the space race to further elevate American culture. Eventually following the intense crisis, Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushev’s power was reduced as Kennedy averted nuclear war, while still dismantling low-tech missile sites in Turkey to satisfy Russian paranoia. JFK’s careful decisions truly ended a possible nuclear war with Russia, but not truly resolving international conflict, as was shown during the failed Bay of Pigs invasion in Cuba, and a “proxy war” in Vietnam in 1961 attempts to support dwindling South Vietnam against communist North Vietnam in 1961. Following the principles of “flexible response”, developed by Defense Secretary McNamara, and also those of American diplomat George F. Keenan and his “containment doctrine” from 1947, JFK sought to establish a military response force to the growth of communism in Asia by creating the Green Berets to effectively quell the guerrilla tactics of the Vietnamese. Though his presidency issued in a focus on the younger American, and pursued a new age under his New Frontier plan, most of those plans to were not executed during his presidency, and America did not see the first man land on the moon until after his assassination. Nevertheless, under his administration, Kennedy generated excitement in the American people as the United States emerged into the “information age”.
While President Kennedy’s attractive energy and charisma spurred a call to change, his succeeding president Lyndon Baines Johnson created change in the nation. President Johnson’s actions focused on providing for the American people through his “Great Society” administration. One of his first actions as president were to finish what Kennedy hand fought for, a civil rights amendment, banning any and all discrimination between American citizens, and later the 24th amendment to end the voting poll tax in 1964. While the deceased JFK initiated a national pursuit to better American society, LBJ’s administration focused and executed that pursuit. President Johnson therefore chose to continue a passion for creating a great society, as his administration was named so. The president’s administration followed under four successful legislative achievements during his declared War on Poverty, including aid to education, and medical care for the elderly through Medicare in 1965, immigration reform, and a new voting rights bill; while being successful, Johnson was unable to really end poverty, created riots in the black ghettos, all while the Vietnam Conflict was occurring from 1955 to 1975. In his pursuit for peace, Johnson left many holes that created a deeper dependency on welfare and made poverty difficult to overcome for the already poor, as was criticized by historical writers like Charles Murray and Lawrence Meade. Despite these criticisms, LBJ’s quest for peace ultimately left greater social balance, even during an undeclared war, as African Americans now had their rights, and social security was expanded, and would influence President Nixon to improve federal aid and welfare to the nation.
(Part 3) The era orbiting around the 60’s included astronomical achievements during all three president’s terms, while also including reportable failures as this chaotic period progressed. I an age that encouraged revolutionary change for the U.S., presidents Eisenhower, JFK, and LBJ all found difficulty directing these dramatic changes towards the common good amongst a Cold War and Vietnam conflict, as their administrations sought to improve the nation, its people, and its position with foreign nations. While many critics dispute over the classification of the 1960s, these three presidents issued forth prosperity amidst practically impending chaos, and defined the state of the world today, regardless of the challenges faced in order that we achieve our national identity today.
Nick Palmares
Per 4
The development of the Peace Corps was one of Kennedy’s first acts in his presidency. The program itself was meant as a volunteer corporation to aid underdeveloped countries. Still in effect even now, the Peace Corps serves approximately 139 countries. Likewise, the Cuban Missile Crisis, which had been a thirteen day confrontation between the Soviet Union and Cuba with the United States of America using background involvement. Being one of the main conflicts of the Cold War, it was the lone closest call into a rather large-scale nuclear battle. Equally, Kennedy’s stoic resolve in Khrushchev shortly after the Vienna summit, was what permitted the narrow escape. The upsetting incidence of the Bay of Pigs in Southeast Asia was meant to allegedly hinder the intrusion of the president in civil rights direction. This disappointment was what led to the solidification of Castro’s own administration in Cuba and stated an embracing of socialism solidifying Soviet Union bonds and concluding in the Cuban Missile Crisis. In harmonization with Truman and Nixon, they were all determined in their governing, and sometimes over-estimated their skills to pull through with those substantial responsibilities. So too in Truman’s marking of communist suppression and Nixon’s Berlin Wall captivity marking cautious affectation for all, plus the west.Lyndon Baines Johnson fixed the time for the “war on poverty” also known as a healthcare reform, and the extensive NASA space program enhancements were obvious , regardless of there being a growing sense of mistrust increasing particularly adjoining the Vietnam conflict in addition to his decline to run for another full term. On straight request from Johnson, Congress willingly passed the Revenue Act of 1964 and the Economic Opportunity Act in association with the war on poverty. These programs were meant to provide a cheaper medical service to be more freely available to the elderly, and this would hopefully greatly dropping national poverty levels in general. Similarly, the NASA space program progress was fairly widespread. The change of the Gemini project at that point had just ended, initiating the planning for the first Apollo program flights. Though, after the unforeseen and abrupt deaths of the first Apollo crew due to a simple mistake, salvage came only after encouragement for NASA to do its own examination as to what happened. Yet, there was a growth in suspicion rotating around the struggle in Vietnam. His main difficulties arose in 1966, and the seeming break between what was being said and what was actually being done was growing more and more every time he spoke. What was happening in Vietnam did not go parallel with what was being stated by him, therefore representing deceitful attention for Johnson. But there was also his decision to not run for a second term was one of the most harmful events that he could have done for his political career. Continuous street fights, with the police joining in on them instead of stopping them, were taking place as the Democratic Party brusquely divided into four diverse divisions as Johnson lost control of the politics of his own party. This worked out very well in Nixon’s favor, because it had enabled him to surpass the election and become the next president of the United States.
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